The Development of English Drama
The Evolution of Drama in Medieval England: A Reflection of Society
Introduction
Drama, as a unique form of literature, has consistently adhered to a dialogic mode of representation, distinguishing it from poetry and other literary genres. While poetry can also be performed, often in the form of contemporary performance poetry or historical minstrelsy, drama uniquely engages the audience through its narrative and thematic depth. It introduces new ideas and doctrines under the guise of entertainment, thus maintaining a profound connection with society and the lives of its people. This essay explores the development of drama during the medieval period in England, examining its reflection of the changing social landscape and its progression from ecclesiastical performances to secular interludes.
The Social Context of Medieval England
Medieval England was marked by significant social and economic transitions. The economy at the end of the Old English period was predominantly agricultural, controlled by the feudal system. Lords held substantial power over the peasants who worked their lands, resulting in a rigid social hierarchy. Sheep farming was a common livelihood, but subsistence largely remained dependent on the lord’s provisions until the twelfth century.
As the population grew in the thirteenth century, the lords' control over farmers intensified, leading to increased dependence on land. However, the arrival of the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century dramatically altered this dynamic, resulting in the death of over one-third of the population. This catastrophic event shifted the power structure, as the labor force dwindled, allowing surviving farmers to demand higher wages and greater autonomy. The emergence of a more affluent class of free laborers and yeoman farmers began to challenge the traditional feudal order.
Trade and commerce flourished during this period, particularly with the manufacture and export of wool and cloth. The rise of towns and the formation of craft guilds signified the growing influence of a merchant class. These guilds became politically powerful, sometimes lending money to the crown, reflecting their significant control over the state and society.
The Church also wielded immense power in medieval England but was rife with corruption, as illustrated in Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. Although the Church maintained control over the spiritual lives of common people through doctrines of sin and repentance, it faced calls for reform. The Bible remained largely inaccessible to the lay population, with most familiarization coming from sermons or visual representations in churches.
The Beginnings of Medieval English Drama
The roots of drama in England can be traced back to the infiltration of Christianity, which introduced ecclesiastical dialogues based on liturgical narratives. These performances, known as “tropes,” were intended to replace pagan traditions with Christian teachings. The earliest known trope, Quem Quaeritis (Whom do you seek), dates back to the 10th century and depicts the encounter between the three Marys and an Angel at Christ's tomb, announcing His resurrection.
The Regularis Concordia, written in 970 A.D. by Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, describes the performance of this trope, marking a significant moment in the development of medieval drama. As these tropes evolved, they began to incorporate more characters and complex narratives, leading to a fully developed liturgical drama by the 12th century.
Initially, medieval drama primarily focused on biblical stories, but as these performances gained popularity, vernacular elements began to emerge. The shift of performances from the church to the marketplace marked a secularization of drama, as Latin elements gradually vanished and the plays became entirely vernacular.
Miracles and Mysteries
The earliest forms of medieval English drama are classified as miracles and mysteries. "Miracles" referred to plays about the lives of saints, while "mysteries" encompassed biblical themes. These terms eventually became synonymous in England, with the content of the plays spanning sacred history from Creation to the Last Judgment.
The establishment of the feast of Corpus Christi in 1264 provided a suitable occasion for these performances, which became regular occurrences in the 14th century. The medieval stage, referred to as a "pageant," utilized a six-wheeled wagon that moved from location to location. Trade guilds sponsored and staged these plays, with actors typically being members of the guilds and receiving payment for their participation.
The diversity of interests in medieval society is reflected in these plays. Despite their religious content, audiences sought entertainment that offered relief from the rigidities of theological dogma. This desire for liberation from ecclesiastical authority is evident in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, where diverse characters engage in stories that reflect a range of human experiences.
Four complete cycles of miracle plays exist from Chester, York, Wakefield, and Coventry. These plays, while fragmented, collectively depict the theological narrative of salvation history. The Chester cycle comprises twenty-five plays, beginning with the Fall of Lucifer and concluding with Doomsday. The dialogue and action are presented in a straightforward manner, utilizing an eight-line stanza form reminiscent of romantic poetry.
The York cycle includes forty-eight plays, primarily didactic in tone, with a notable literary quality in those dealing with the Passion of Christ. The Wakefield cycle, or Towneley plays, is recognized for its higher literary merit, featuring thirty-two plays that showcase unique characterization and ironic humor. The second shepherd's play stands out for its blend of pastoral elements and comedic resolution, culminating in the discovery of a sheep in a cradle, paralleling the nativity story.
The Coventry cycle, though less documented, contains two surviving plays with fragments from the New Testament. The popularity of these performances led trade guilds to adopt them as a means of promoting their crafts, with guild representatives participating in processions dressed in costumes associated with their trades.
Morality Plays
Alongside miracle plays, a new form known as morality plays emerged during the medieval period. Unlike their predecessors, morality plays did not focus on biblical narratives but instead personified abstract concepts such as virtues and vices, illustrating their struggle for the human soul. This allegorical representation of human morality echoed the themes of the Latin poem Psychomachia by Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, which depicted the victory of Christianity over paganism.
Morality plays gained widespread acceptance, paving the way for more complex representations of human experience. Although the conflict between virtues and vices persisted, the characters became more defined, and the narratives moved beyond abstract symbolism to engage with the audience's understanding of life.
The earliest known morality play, Pater Noster, dates back to the 14th century and portrays the conflict between the seven deadly sins and the seven cardinal virtues. However, morality plays reached their full development in the 15th century, with notable works such as The Pride of Life, Mankind, Wisdom, and Everyman.
The Castle of Perseverance, believed to date around 1425, features Humanum Genus, representing humanity's journey towards salvation. The play illustrates the ongoing struggle against the temptations of the world, flesh, and devil, culminating in the redemption of the protagonist through divine grace.
The Pride of Life depicts a king succumbing to his pride, ultimately defeated by Death. Despite his flaws, the king's soul is saved, reflecting the moral complexities of human existence.
Mankind offers a humorous portrayal of the central character's struggle against temptation, while Wisdom narrates the seduction of Anima by Lucifer, culminating in her eventual redemption.
The most renowned morality play, Everyman, illustrates the universal human experience as the protagonist, representing humanity, embarks on a journey of self-discovery. Facing the inevitability of death, Everyman seeks companions to accompany him, only to realize that his Good Deeds are his only true ally.
Interludes
The evolution of drama continued with the emergence of interludes during the early sixteenth century, reflecting the socio-political currents of the time. Unlike morality plays, interludes shifted focus from abstract representations to direct political and social commentary, incorporating comedic and realistic elements.
John Skelton's Magnificence serves as an early example, portraying the central character's fall from grace under the influence of political evils. Similarly, John Bale's King Johan is noted as the first English drama based on national history, presenting King John’s struggle against the Pope's authority.
The transition from morality plays to interludes reflects a move towards greater social realism, as these performances addressed contemporary issues and concerns. This shift laid the groundwork for Tudor secular drama, leading to the rich theatrical tradition that would flourish in the Elizabethan era.
Conclusion
The evolution of drama in medieval England serves as a mirror to the changing social landscape of the time. From its ecclesiastical origins to the emergence of morality plays and interludes, drama reflected the complexities of human experience and the societal shifts that accompanied them. This development not only prepared the English stage for the works of Shakespeare and other playwrights but also highlighted the intricate relationship between art and society. The themes of individual struggle, moral conflict, and the quest for redemption resonate through these early works, marking a significant chapter in the history of English literature.
Multiple Choice Questions
What was the primary purpose of the early ecclesiastical dialogues in medieval England?
A) To entertain the nobility
B) To replace pagan traditions with Christianity
C) To promote trade and commerce
D) To educate the illiterate
Answer: B) To replace pagan traditions with Christianity
Which event significantly altered the social structure of medieval England in the mid-fourteenth century?
A) The Hundred Years' War
B) The Norman Conquest
C) The Black Death
D) The establishment of the Church of England
Answer: C) The Black Death
What are the two earliest forms of medieval English drama?
A) Tragedies and comedies
B) Miracles and mysteries
C) Interludes and allegories
D) Monologues and dialogues
Answer: B) Miracles and mysteries
What role did craft guilds play in the development of medieval drama?
A) They prohibited performances in towns.
B) They sponsored and staged plays.
C) They wrote all the plays performed.
D) They enforced church laws on performances.
Answer: B) They sponsored and staged plays.
Which play is considered the most famous morality play of the medieval period?
A) The Castle of Perseverance
B) Everyman
C) Mankind
D) The Pride of Life
Answer: B) Everyman
What was a significant characteristic of morality plays compared to miracle plays?
A) They were shorter in length.
B) They focused on biblical stories.
C) They personified abstract concepts.
D) They were exclusively in Latin.
Answer: C) They personified abstract concepts.
Which interlude is noted as the first English drama based on national history?
A) Magnificence
B) King Johan
C) The Play called the foure PP
D) Everyman
Answer: B) King Johan
What narrative style did morality plays typically employ?
A) Historical accounts of kings
B) Allegorical representations of virtues and vices
C) Realistic portrayals of everyday life
D) Mythical stories from ancient texts
Answer: B) Allegorical representations of virtues and vices.
What was one of the main influences on the content of medieval English dramas?
A) The rise of the printing press
B) The spread of humanism
C) The teachings of the Church
D) The decline of feudalism
Answer: C) The teachings of the Church
What transition does the evolution of drama from morality plays to interludes signify?
A) A return to pagan themes
B) A move from abstract symbolism to social realism
C) An increase in religious content
D) A decline in theatrical performances
Answer: B) A move from abstract symbolism to social realism